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The larynx, which sits on top of the trachea, is composed of cartilages held together by ligaments. It houses the vocal cords, which lie horizontally just behind the Adam’s apple (see figure 1.2). The space between the vocal cords, which is known as the ‘glottis’, assumes different configurations for sounds known as ‘voiced’ and ‘voiceless’. When the cords are apart (open), the air passes freely through the glottis. Sounds made with such a configuration of the glottis are called ‘voiceless’ (see figure 1.3).
If, on the other hand, the vocal cords are brought together, the air passing through creates vibration, and the resulting sounds are ‘voiced’ (see figure 1.4). It is important to point out that the cord vibration is not a muscular action. When the cords are brought close to one another, the passing air creates a suction effect (Bernoulli principle), and the cords are brought together. As soon as the cords are together, there is no suction effect and the cords move apart. As soon as they are apart the suction is reinitiated, and the cycle repeats itself. One can easily feel the difference between certain voiced and voiceless sounds. If you pronounce the initial sounds of the word pairs ‘sip’–‘zip’ and place your index finger on your Adam’s apple or place your index fingers in both ears, you could feel the buzz created by the voicing of /z/; this effect will not be present in it's voiceless counterpart /s/.
domingo, 1 de mayo de 2011
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Starting from the outer extreme, we have the lips and the teeth. In the upper surface, behind the upper teeth, there is a bumpy area (alveolar ridge), which is followed by a larger bony area (hard palate). Further back is a flaccid area, the ‘soft palate’ (or ‘velum’) which is unsupported by bone. The soft palate is a movable organ, which opens and closes the velopharyngeal passage (the passage that links the pharynx to the nasal cavity). Finally, at the back, the velum narrows to a long, thin pointed structure that is called the ‘uvula’.
In the lower part of the mouth, after the lower lip and the teeth, lies the tongue. The ‘tip’ (or ‘apex’) of the tongue is the foremost part. Just behind the tip is the small surface called the ‘blade’ (or ‘lamina’). The so-called ‘front’ part of the tongue is the area between tip/blade and the center. The hindmost part of the horizontal surface of the tongue is called the ‘back’ (or ‘dorsum’). At the end of the tongue, we have the ‘root’, which is the vertical surface against the pharyngeal wall. Finally, we have the ‘epiglottis’, which is a leaf-shaped cartilage that sticks up and back from the larynx.
What is Phonetics?
Phonetics:
· (a system of) symbols used to show the pronunciation of words.
· The study of sounds of language.
Phonetics is the science which analyses and records sounds and other elements of speech, and their use and distribution in connected speech. It is for this that its necessary the use of a phonetic alphabet. Without such an alphabet, an accurate description and record of speech usages would be clumsy and awkward, and liable to misinterpretation. A dictionary can show the pronunciation of individual words, can even give alternative pronunciations, and can show how words are stressed.
The student is advised to learn to recognize and make the English sounds in isolation and in words, and the symbols which represent these sounds. You will find in this way that a phonetic transcription is a valuable aid to the study of pronunciation. It will help you, in the first place, to get rid of the natural idea that the conventional spelling represents pronunciation. Secondly it will enable you, as no other method could, to realize of your own speech habits.
It should also be remembered that the interpretation of a phonetic transcription requires an understanding of phonetics. There is no science to reading a phonetic transcription. However, as the reader is not trained in speech analysis it’s normal to think that the spelling represents in a manner the pronunciation.
Pronunciation is also connected to grammar resulting in one word having different pronunciation:
Example: Close
A Close friend (adjective)
Close the door (verb)
This criteria of evaluation will be used for oral presentations.
Criteria | Excellent 6.0 – 7.0 | Sufficient 5.0 – 5.9 | Marginal 4.1 – 4.9 | Unacceptable 1.0 – 4.0 |
Organization | Presentation is clear, logical and organized from introduction, body, and conclusion. Listener can follow line of reasoning. | Presentation is generally clear and well organized. A few minor points may be confusing. | Listener can follow presentation with effort. Some arguments are not clear. Organization seems confusing. | Logic of arguments is not made clear. Listeners are confused. |
Use of Visual Aids | Communication aids enhance the presentation. They are well prepared. Fonts on visuals are large enough to be seen by all. Information is organized to maximize audience understanding. Main points are presented and explained. | Communication aids contribute to the quality of the presentation. Font size is appropriate for reading. Appropriate information is included. Some material is not supported by visual aids. | Communication aids are poorly prepared or used inappropriately. Fonts are too small to be easily seen. Too much information is included. Unimportant material is highlighted. Listeners may be confused. | No communication aids are used, or they are so poorly prepared that they detract from the presentation. |
Content Depth | Speaker provides an accurate and complete explanation that includes various examples and concepts drawing upon relevant topic. | For the most part, explanations of concepts and examples are accurate and complete. | Explanations of concepts and examples are inaccurate or incomplete. Little attempt is made to tie examples to the topic. Listeners gain little from the presentation. | No reference or examples are made to the topic exposed. |
Use of Grammar and Fluency | Sentences are complete and grammatical, and they flow together easily. Words are chosen for their precise meaning. | For the most part, sentences are complete and grammatical, and they flow together easily. With a few exceptions, words are chosen for their precise meaning. | Listeners can follow the presentation, but some grammatical errors and use of slang are evident. Some sentences are incomplete/halting, and/or vocabulary is somewhat limited or inappropriate. | Listeners are so distracted by the presenter’s apparent difficulty with the grammar and appropriate vocabulary that they cannot focus on the ideas presented. |
Formality and Appearance | Clothes correspond to school uniform and speaker has a clean and appropriate appearance. | Clothes correspond to the school’s physical education uniform and has a clean and appropriate appearance | Clothes correspond to a mixture of the school uniform and physical education clothes or the mixture of casual clothes, which gives the speaker an inappropriate look. | Clothes are unacceptable and speaker is not dressed appropriately at all. |
Materials for class
You will need:
1. 1. A notebook for the class
In your notebooks you will write the name of the unit and date and the examples of the white board that will be seen every class. After the explanation of the unit you will work on the exercise sheet that will also be handed to you at the beginning of the class. The answers for the exercises will be written on the notebook. For homework you will:
- Make the phonetic transcriptions of the Target sections in each unit (if any) from the pages
- Write a summary and what you understood from the unit in Spanish for later review.
- Write anything curious you would like to add (similar to a diary).
2. 2. A folder to keep the material handed to you.
On the folder, with your name and grade written on it, you will keep the material in order with date and later separated in Sections (A, B, & C). All the material will be useful for you this year and the following 2 years as an easy way to look back at the material when necessary. For that reason, you will have to keep your notebooks and folders with materials for the following years (ESPECIALLY THE NOTEBOOK).
3. 3. A Dictionary
To avoid interruption during a class it has been decided that you need to have an English dictionary for the class.
Evaluation and items to be graded
1. 1. After every unit the notebooks will be checked and graded. What will be evaluated are the following:
- Name of the units and date.
- Whiteboard examples (which correspond to the units presented).
- Answers for the exercises (of each unit).
- Phonetic transcriptions (hand-written neatly).
- Summary of the units (in Spanish using their own words).
2. 2. After 2 units have been passed, you will be evaluated using the examples from those units in a spelling test, similar to the diagnosis test where you write the words you hear. (On occasions this test will contain another part where you will have to write a sentence you hear, translate a word, or define words previously given).
3. When you make a mistake with a word, either in the test or in your homework, you will have to write the word(s) on your notebook with the following:
- Transcription for later pronunciation because either you didn’t know the word or didn’t understand while listening.
- Translation because some words are used in different context.
- Definition to comprehend the word and because one word may have different meanings.
- Sentence as a way to demonstrate you understood the word and can use it well in context.
All these points will be graded the following class.
4. 4. At the end of the semester you will take a final exam which will be evaluated in one or two of the following ways (depending on the grade you are in):
- A Spelling Test: 2 to 4 words from each unit.
- A Definition Test: 1 or 2 words from each unit.
- A Sentence Test: 1 or 2 sentences from each unit.
- A Translation Test: 2 to 4 words from each unit.
- Flash cards: 2 to 4 words from each unit using face-down flash cards with phonetic symbols where you will get a point if the word is pronounced correctly. With some mistakes, on the other hand, there will be a discount of up to 0,5. If by any chance you can’t read the symbols, another flash card will be shown to you which corresponds to the word chosen. In this case you will get half a point (0,5) as a maximum mark for not knowing the symbols. With some mistakes on the pronunciation of the word without the phonetic symbols there will be a discount of up to 0,4
5. At the end of the semester the folders will be checked and graded.
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